Thermal events in the atmosphere
Thermal events in the atmosphere
Thermal state of the atmosphere
Origin of Heat: The primary energy source for almost all atmospheric processes and events is solar heat reaching the atmosphere and the earth in the form of radiant energy.
Solar energy moves air masses, and sea currents circulate water in nature and heat the land surface. The heat from the ground is gradually transferred to the depths, where it creates the stored heat necessary for all living organisms.
The sun’s visible light gives us daylight and is the source of all the different optical phenomena in the atmosphere.
The sun’s visible light gives us daylight and is the source of all the different optical phenomena in the atmosphere.
Solar radiation: The energy emitted by the sun’s rays is called solar radiation. It transmits as an electromagnetic wave traveling at 300,000 km/sec.
It turns into heat in the atmosphere and on the earth. The total heat received by the atmosphere and the ground from the sun during a year is 1.3 x 104 calories…
It turns into heat in the atmosphere and on the earth. The total heat received by the atmosphere and the ground from the sun during a year is 1.3 x 104 calories…
This heat can melt a 36 m thick ice sheet covering the world at 0°C. The spectrum of solar radiation is the combination of the entire wave range in which solar radiation is emitted.
The solar spectrum is divided into three types of rays: ultraviolet radiation – short-wave radiation with wavelengths from 0.10 to 0.40 µm; visible or light radiation with wavelengths of 0.40 – 0.76 µm; infrared radiation – long-wave radiation with a wavelength of 0.76 – 4.0 µm.
The solar spectrum is divided into three types of rays: ultraviolet radiation – short-wave radiation with wavelengths from 0.10 to 0.40 µm; visible or light radiation with wavelengths of 0.40 – 0.76 µm; infrared radiation – long-wave radiation with a wavelength of 0.76 – 4.0 µm.
Direct radiation and diffuse radiation: Solar radiation reaches the ground through direct and scattered rays.
The radiation comes directly from the sun in the form of parallel rays that encounter the earth’s surface, and the different layers in the Atmosphere are called direct radiation.
The radiation intensity directly depends on the sun’s height during daylight hours. The power of natural radiation reaches its maximum at noon.
The radiation intensity directly depends on the sun’s height during daylight hours. The power of natural radiation reaches its maximum at noon.
Solar radiation scattered many times in the atmosphere is called diffuse radiation. Scattered radiation reaches the earth’s surface from all sides of the sky background.
The intensity of scattered radiation depends on the sun’s height, atmospheric transparency, the presence of clouds, the reflective properties of the night surface, and the size of the site above sea level.
The intensity of scattered radiation depends on the sun’s height, atmospheric transparency, the presence of clouds, the reflective properties of the night surface, and the size of the site above sea level.
Scattered radiation causes gray areas during clear skies and daytime illumination during heavy clouds, creating a blue tint.
Total radiation combines direct and diffuse radiation reaching the ground under prevailing conditions.
Reflected radiation: Some of the total radiation that enters a particular surface is absorbed by that surface while the other part reacts. The extent to which radiation is absorbed and reflected depends on the activity of the surface at night.
The thermal effect of the pillow on the lower atmosphere
Buffer surface: land surface, water surface, vegetation, and snow cover located at the bottom of the atmospheric ocean…
Because each type of mattress has different color and moisture content, the absorption and response of solar radiation are also different. The radiation absorption level is highest for black and gray, wet floors, while dry, light-colored sand absorbs the least and reflects the most.
Also, the surface of ocean water, especially the equatorial region, absorbs solar radiation the most.
Because each type of mattress has different color and moisture content, the absorption and response of solar radiation are also different. The radiation absorption level is highest for black and gray, wet floors, while dry, light-colored sand absorbs the least and reflects the most.
Also, the surface of ocean water, especially the equatorial region, absorbs solar radiation the most.
Types of heating and cooling beds: The heating and cooling of the bed depend on its thermal balance, i.e., the relationship between absorbed heat and heat output.
The heat coming to the ground, especially in summer, especially at noon, is more than the heat released, so the soil gets warmer.
At night, especially in winter, the amount of heat released is much more significant than the amount of heat absorbed by the ground, so it gets colder.
At night, especially in winter, the amount of heat released is much more significant than the amount of heat absorbed by the ground, so it gets colder.
The heating and cooling of the water surface are similar but much slower. Since heat transfer occurs faster in water than in soil, heat reaches deeper layers of water; This causes the heat collected in the surface water layers during the day not to be retained for long and not to heat up as quickly as the interiors.
On the other hand, the evaporation of water in the sea and ocean and the deterioration of water bodies also play a role in removing heat from the surface water layer.
On the contrary, with the amount of heat that comes in at night, the sun no longer disappears. The surface of the water begins to radiate heat strongly into space, which causes the temperature of the surface water layer to drop and the heat from the depths to decrease and partially transfer upwards; the temperature is lowered, cooling the surface water.
On the other hand, the evaporation of water in the sea and ocean and the deterioration of water bodies also play a role in removing heat from the surface water layer.
On the contrary, with the amount of heat that comes in at night, the sun no longer disappears. The surface of the water begins to radiate heat strongly into space, which causes the temperature of the surface water layer to drop and the heat from the depths to decrease and partially transfer upwards; the temperature is lowered, cooling the surface water.
Day and year variation of the temperature in the ocean: High thermal conductivity of water and rapid heat transfer to the deep slows the heating and cooling of surface water.
For more extensive water pools, heating and cooling are done more slowly. This results in the daily variation of temperature over the ocean, which is usually very small; In tropical seas close to 0.5.
For more extensive water pools, heating and cooling are done more slowly. This results in the daily variation of temperature over the ocean, which is usually very small; In tropical seas close to 0.5.
The maximum value of the temperature over the ocean is observed at 15-16 hours, the smallest about 2-3″ after sunrise.
Annual temperature fluctuations in surface water are much more significant than daily thermal fluctuations 5°. The annual maximum temperature of the surface water layer in the northern hemisphere occurs in August, and the lowest – is in February and March.
The thermal regime of the lower gas layer is little affected by solar radiation since the absorption of solar radiation in this gas layer is very small. The buffer surface determines the source of heating for the lower air layer.
The lower gas layers essentially absorb the long-wave radiation of the night surface near the buffer surface. In turn, these lowermost layers of gas transfer heat to the adjacent upper layer.
Thus, the process of heating the gas in the upper layers takes place. At night, the heat transfer process of the lower gas layers occurs in the opposite direction.
The lower gas layers essentially absorb the long-wave radiation of the night surface near the buffer surface. In turn, these lowermost layers of gas transfer heat to the adjacent upper layer.
Thus, the process of heating the gas in the upper layers takes place. At night, the heat transfer process of the lower gas layers occurs in the opposite direction.
Heat convection and convection type
Thermal convection: the movement of many separate air masses in the vertical direction. Most thermal convection occurs due to the heating of the lower gas layer.
Convection over the seas and oceans can happen when the water is warmer than the gas above the surface, which is observed during the year’s cold season and at night. In convection, warmer air rises and is displaced by cooler air downwards.
Convection can reach the upper layers of the atmosphere and is, therefore, an effective way of transferring heat from the buffer to the layers of the atmosphere.
Convection over the seas and oceans can happen when the water is warmer than the gas above the surface, which is observed during the year’s cold season and at night. In convection, warmer air rises and is displaced by cooler air downwards.
Convection can reach the upper layers of the atmosphere and is, therefore, an effective way of transferring heat from the buffer to the layers of the atmosphere.
Turbulence:
The directional movement of small air masses in unrestricted airflow. These components of air rise, and other details go down. The result of this is vertical heat exchange. As the wind speed increases, the turbulence increases.
Heat exchange by convection and convection is heat transfer from the warmer layer to the colder layer.
True straight thermal gradient
Actual flat thermal gradient with altitude, air temperature can decrease, remain constant, or even increase.
The variation of air temperature with the size is characterized by the value and sign of the vertical thermal gradient, usually denoted by the Greek letter γ.
The variation of air temperature with the size is characterized by the value and sign of the vertical thermal gradient, usually denoted by the Greek letter γ.
The vertical thermal gradient is the change in air temperature at 100 m altitude.
γ = ∆t° C/100 m
The gradient is a vector quantity; that is, it is defined as direction and amount. The direction of the vertical thermal gradient is defined as the elevation direction.
The change in air temperature At is defined as the temperature between the lower and upper levels when air temperature decreases with altitude, γ > 0, γ = 0 constant, and γ < 0 when the temperature increases.
The change in air temperature At is defined as the temperature between the lower and upper levels when air temperature decreases with altitude, γ > 0, γ = 0 constant, and γ < 0 when the temperature increases.
The vertical thermal gradient in different layers of the atmosphere may be different. It depends on altitude, the season of the year, geographic latitude, and other factors γ ≈ 0°5/100 m in the lower part of the troposphere, and the average temperature at the poles and at γ latitudes in winter can be as low as 0.1- 04/100 m. Grows up to 0.7-08/100 m in the upper troposphere.
Cold adiabatic, warm adiabatic. In the upward movement of the air mass, there is a change in the internal temperature of the air mass.
This heat change is due to work produced during expansion or compression, not heat exchange with the surrounding medium.
This heat change is due to work produced during expansion or compression, not heat exchange with the surrounding medium.
This process of heat exchange is called adiabatic. Adiabatic cooling occurs for the upward movement of the gas mass, while the downward warming movement is adiabatic.
Adiabatic processes are not observed in the atmosphere. However, in the reasonably rapid upward trend of each gas mass, the heat exchange with the external environment is negligible, and therefore we consider it an adiabatic process.
The adiabatic process for dry or unsaturated air is called dry adiabatic. The gas is saturated – moist, and adiabatic.
Adiabatic processes are not observed in the atmosphere. However, in the reasonably rapid upward trend of each gas mass, the heat exchange with the external environment is negligible, and therefore we consider it an adiabatic process.
The adiabatic process for dry or unsaturated air is called dry adiabatic. The gas is saturated – moist, and adiabatic.
Distribution of air temperature by altitude: in the lowest layer of the troposphere, the change in air temperature with the size is strongly influenced by the processes of solar radiation.
It is clear that during the day on the mainland, the gas layer near the ground heats up strongly, and the temperature rises rapidly, while the upper layer of the air has not yet warmed up or warms very slowly, the temperature rises insignificantly and the temperature difference in the lower and upper air layers increases.
At night, the ground cools due to the release of heat, which causes the bottom layer of air to cool. The gas layer, where the temperature decreases with height, are called the standard layer.
In some other gaseous layers of the troposphere, It is observed that the temperature is constant with altitude, and this gas layer is called isothermal. It is observed that the temperature of some gas layers increases with length. This situation is called the inversion layer.
It is clear that during the day on the mainland, the gas layer near the ground heats up strongly, and the temperature rises rapidly, while the upper layer of the air has not yet warmed up or warms very slowly, the temperature rises insignificantly and the temperature difference in the lower and upper air layers increases.
At night, the ground cools due to the release of heat, which causes the bottom layer of air to cool. The gas layer, where the temperature decreases with height, are called the standard layer.
In some other gaseous layers of the troposphere, It is observed that the temperature is constant with altitude, and this gas layer is called isothermal. It is observed that the temperature of some gas layers increases with length. This situation is called the inversion layer.
Isothermal or inverse This heat differs from the troposphere’s average temperature flux. Figure 1 shows three heat dissipation pattern curves with altitude. As we can see, the temperature decreases with length in most cases.
Heat inversion can occur either in the lowest gas layer or free atmosphere. It can also be seen as isothermal in the lower gas layer. Heat inversion in the free atmosphere.
Heat inversion can occur either in the lowest gas layer or free atmosphere. It can also be seen as isothermal in the lower gas layer. Heat inversion in the free atmosphere.
Air temperature above the ground and how to measure it
Air temperature scales: air temperature – is one of the essential meteorological factors. People use some of the following scales to measure:
- The Celsius scale (°C) is also known as the decimal scale. This is the international scale of the practice. Zero degrees equals the melting point of ice, and 100 degrees to the boiling point of water.
Every 1/100th of the distance between these two points is equal to 1°C of the thermometer scale. - Fahrenheit scale (°F). In some countries, the Fahrenheit scale is frequently used. On this scale, the solubility of ice is set at 32%, and the boiling point of water is 212.
The line segment between these two points is divided into 180 equal parts. Every 1/180 equals 1°F. So 1°F is roughly equal to half a degree Celius. It is easy to understand that 0°F is equivalent to -17.8C. - Kelvin scale (°K), also known as the absolute scale. The Kelvin scale is used in theoretical calculations and thermodynamics.
The temperature is calculated from absolute 0°, the temperature at which the thermal motion of all molecules ceases. Absolute zero is at -273.16 C. Intensity divided on the Kelvin scale equals the division of the major scale.
How to convert from one scale to another.
Instruments for measuring the air temperature
People use liquid thermometers, strain thermometers, and electric thermometers to measure air temperature.
The liquid thermometer consists of a small container connected to a glass tube with a petite capillary tube. Liquids such as mercury or alcohol are poured into the vessel and capillary tube.
The upper end of the line is sealed. That is why it is called a mercury thermometer or alcohol thermometer. Mercury thermometers are usually used to measure the maximum temperature, while alcohol thermometer – measures the lowest temperature in the observation period. In addition, an alcohol thermometer is mainly used in practical meteorology when the air temperature is below -40°C.
Liquid thermometers not only measure the air temperature in drought-affected areas but also use a hygrometer as a “dry” thermometer to determine the relative humidity
of the air.
of the air.
Strain thermometers rely on the properties of metals to deform with temperature changes. They are used in self-recording thermometers and probes.
The thermometer continuously records the change in air temperature over time.
Electric thermometers are based on the principle that conductivity changes as temperature changes. They are generally used in meteorological stations in remote areas.
How to monitor air temperature on land and ships.
At meteorological stations, thermometers are placed in wooden tents at a height of about 1.5 m from the ground, including a “dry” thermometer, a “wet” thermometer, a “high” thermometer, and a “high” thermometer low.”
We only need to use a regular thermometer to measure the air temperature. Eye level should be horizontal to the top of the mercury column when reading the thermometer.
Do not look above or below the upper horizontal line. Do not hold your hand or stand too close to the thermometer. First, read ten degrees, then integers. Readings must be recorded in the meteorological observation book.
To get the true temperature, the tasks are weather. The instrument should correct the thermometer reading.
Every day, the air temperature is measured four times at the following times: 0h, 6h, 12h, and 18h GMT.
On ships, thermometers are placed on a rack fixed on the deck in the welcome direction wind. The thermometer bulb is protected from the direct effects of sunlight, rain, and snow…
On ships, thermometers are placed on a rack fixed on the deck in the welcome direction wind. The thermometer bulb is protected from the direct effects of sunlight, rain, and snow…
Temperature monitoring on ships should be done on time, as at the land meteorological station. Temperature accuracy is 0°1.
Finally, the temperature reading correction. Sample reading on thermometer 12°1C; many peaks will be +0,°1.
The actual temperature will be 12°1+0°1= 12°2 C, number reading of 18°,2; If the number of redactions is –0°3, the actual temperature is 18°2+(-0°,3) = 17°9 .vv…
The measured temperature should be recorded in the ship’s logbook.Geographical distribution of air temperature.
The actual temperature will be 12°1+0°1= 12°2 C, number reading of 18°,2; If the number of redactions is –0°3, the actual temperature is 18°2+(-0°,3) = 17°9 .vv…
The measured temperature should be recorded in the ship’s logbook.Geographical distribution of air temperature.
- To get an idea of the geographical distribution of a particular meteorological element or its deviations from a specific value, maps are created on which contour lines connecting the weights are drawn.
Same values or different values of meteorological factors, the map of air temperature distribution over land or seawater, or to some extent, is represented by isotherms and is called an isothermal map.
- Isotherms are curves connecting points at an equal temperature of zero gas. Curves on isothermal maps are usually drawn at about 5° or 4°.
- Isothermal maps are created based on observed data from each period of air temperature measurement or the average temperature value over a while. Most people follow the average month, season, or year temperature.
- These maps based on multi-year data are called climate maps.
We now consider the isothermal climate map at sea level for the northeastern hemisphere’s January feature and July – summer months. It is easy to see that the air temperature drops from the equatorial belt towards the poles throughout the year.
Here, the high-temperature tropical belt is represented by closed curves around the earth with an isotherm value of 25°. However, the location of these isotherms, higher temperature furnaces that cool very rapidly towards the poles within the equatorial belt, depends on the time of year.
Comparing the January and July maps, it is easy to see that the high-temperature tropical belt is limited to the 25° isotherm, with much of its area spread over a large area in the summer hemisphere.
- In the northern hemisphere continents, high-temperature furnaces are seen in this belt in summer. Mainly high temperatures are observed in Xa Ha Ra, where temperatures average up to 40°C and, on some days, exceed 50°C.
The maximum air temperature observed in North Africa is up to 58°C. The air temperature once reached 56°7C in Death Valley. Very high-temperature air over the Persian Gulf was recorded at 35°6 C.
- In cold ocean currents, the 25° isotherm bends toward the equator, forming hard “tongues” at the western end of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
These wings occupy the begin current and the Peruvian Sea all year round. They appear in the northern hemisphere in the summer in the Canadian and Canifocnian rivers. - The overall decrease in temperature from the equatorial belt towards the poles is evident during the hemisphere’s winter months.
- In the middle latitudes of the southern hemisphere, where the continent is not present, isotherms draw almost straight lines in parallel directions in winter and summer.
Over the middle and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere, isotherms do not coincide with the latitude circle but instead produce winter poles over the oceans and tropical depressions on the continents.
In the summer, these depressions – on the sea about the equator and the continents above the bars. In January, convex and concave lines appear more clearly. However, continental warming in summer is less intense than winter cooling. - A point to note here is the distinct presentation of warm fins over the Atlantic in winter in conjunction with the Gulfstream current, and the cold region of North Asia is closed by heat.
- Thermal Equator – the hottest latitude is determined by the average latitude temperature. According to this calculation, the equator is at 5S in January and at 20°N in July.
The thermal equator passes through the 10N parallel if the year is averaged. That is, the thermal equator does not coincide with the geographical equator; it shifts to the northern hemisphere, and just as the thermal equator does not coincide with the geographical equator, the region with the coldest temperature – the hard pole – does not coincide with the rod.
- There are two cold poles in the northern hemisphere: one at last and one at Greenland. At the lake pole, the average January temperature at the station level is -50°C and below, with some days as low as -70°C. T
his extreme cold only exists in winter. Summer is as hot as any other European place at the same latitude.
- Freezing temperatures are stable. The average temperature in January is -55°C, and the lowest temperature is almost in the lake.
However, the average July temperature in the center of Greenland differs by no more than 15°C from the lake. - In the southern hemisphere, near the center of Antarctica, about 1000 km from the south pole, there is extreme cold all year round.
Weather 01852 - Lowell MA
53°
clear sky
Feels like 51°
05:36/19:47
56°F
/48°F
70%
1021 hPa
7 mi
5.75 mph
